Saturday, August 31, 2019

Import & Export Financing

IMPORT FINANCING Background Like other developing countries, Pakistan’s import bill exceeds exports. Therefore, it faces scarcity of foreign exchange to meet its import requirements. According to daily â€Å"DAWN† dated 18th November 2012, Pakistan’s foreign exchange reserves were USD 13. 84 Billion at the week ended as on 9th November 2012. Gap between the import and export bills is partially covered by regulations, controls and measures exercised by State Bank of Pakistan and partially by the international credit, aid, loan agencies like International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB).State Bank of Pakistan keeps control at a time, over this imbalance by imposing cash margin restrictions on import of general items from time to time. This is done in order to restrict imports and to allow import of only necessary items to fulfill genuine requirements and to discourage import of non-commercial and luxury items. CASE STUDY: On 1st Februa ry 2012, restriction on import of CNG cylinders and kits was imposed by Government of Pakistan in view of government policy to discourage use of CNG as a fuel due to its short supply and ever rising demand.No importer is allowed to import CNG cylinders & kits up till now which is being restricted by SBP & custom authority. Foreign trade involves many risks because of different locations /countries of importer and exporter. Both the parties are doing their businesses in different countries where different laws & regulations apply and it is difficult to settle any dispute regarding goods quality and payment settlement between importer and exporter. For safeguarding interest of both importer and exporter, banks involve in these transactions for smooth settlement between the parties. IMPORTERSAny body who imports the required goods into the country is called an importer. The importer has to pay the exporter for the value of goods in foreign exchange. Importers are classified into three categories: i) Commercial sector importer i-e. a firm, institution, organization, person or group of persons registered as an importer is called commercial importer. ii) Industrial sector importer i-e. any industrial unit which is registered as importer comes under this category. iii) Public sector importers i-e. the organizations owned by the government which import capital / consumer commodities as per their requirement.Usually, these organizations are not registered as regular importer and their requests for opening letter of credit is routed through SBP. Letter of Credit (L/C) Letter of Credit is a written undertaking by a bank given to the seller/exporter (beneficiary) at the request and instructions of the buyer/importer (applicant) to pay at sight or at a determinable future date a stated sum of money against the required documents. The documents include commercial invoice, certificate of origin, transport document relating to the mode of transport used (Airway Bill, Bill of Lading, Railway Receipt, Truck Receipt, etc. and other documents required as per terms of letter of credit. Parties to Letter of Credit In documentary credit operations, maximum number of parties involved are as under: i) Applicant (Opener of L/C): The applicant of a credit is an importer or buyer who requests his bank to issue documentary credit in favor of the seller /exporter. ii) Issuing Bank (Opening Bank): The issuing bank is also called importer’s bank. At the request of the applicant, this bank issues the credit in accordance with the instructions of the applicant in favor of the exporter. The letter of credit is sent to the bank in the exporter/seller’s country. ii) Advising Bank: Advising bank is also known as transmitting or correspondent bank in the seller’s country. Issuing bank forwards the advice of the credit by mail or by any means of tele-transmission (i-e. cable, telex, SWIFT, etc. ) to a correspondent bank where the beneficiary business exist s. Normally, all L/Cs are sent via SWIFT i-e. Society for Worldwide International Financial Transactions. iv) Beneficiary (Seller or Exporter): The person or body receiving the letter of credit from the importer and/or in whose favor letter of credit is issued is called beneficiary. v) Confirming Bank:Confirming bank is the bank which at the specific request of the issuing bank adds its confirmation to a letter of credit. Adding confirmation constitutes a definite undertaking of the confirming bank, in addition to that of the issuing bank. vi) Negotiating Bank: Negotiating Bank is the bank which receives the documents against letter of credit as authorized bank. This bank has to give value for drafts and/or documents under L/C conditions. Negotiating Bank may or may not be the Advising Bank. This bank examines the documents against L/C, and if found in order, negotiates the documents and makes payment to the seller.The negotiating bank dispatches the documents to the Issuing Bank cl aiming reimbursement from the bank as mentioned in the L/C and as agreed between the two banks. The Negotiating Bank should ensure before lodgment of reimbursement claim that all terms of letter of credit have been complied with. vii) Reimbursing Bank: Reimbursing bank is the bank which, on behalf of the opening bank, honors the reimbursement claim lodged by the Negotiating Bank. MODES OF PAYMENT OF L/Cs There are four modes of payments of letters of credit as detailed under: (i) L/C available by Negotiation:If L/C provides for negotiation to pay without recourse to drawers and/or bonafide holders in terms of credit. Negotiation means the payment of value for draft(s) and/or documents by the bank authorized to negotiate complying with the terms of L/C. (ii) L/C available by Acceptance: In case the credit calls for a usance draft and is available by acceptance on the issuing bank, and the seller submits all the documents including usance bill of exchange to a nominated or another ban k complying all the terms and conditions of the credit, the seller receives acceptance of the payment at maturity date.However, under a separate arrangement, he may get his usance draft discounted by the bank in order to meet his cash flow requirements. In such case, seller has to bear discount charges. (iii) L/C available by Sight Payment: If the beneficiary of letter of credit is to obtain payment immediately on presentation of stipulated documents, it is the sight letter of credit. In this case the exporter draws a sight or demand draft payable at the counters of the advising bank or the bank specified in the letter of credit.The draft is paid on presentation provided that all the other terms of L/C have been complied with. (iv) L/C available by Deferred Payment: In this case, L/C opening bank has to effect payment after a period specified in the L/C, calculated as to the number of days after the date of presentation of documents or after the date of shipment. Such L/C does not r equire drafts to be drawn or presented alongwith other documents. RETIREMENT OF DOCUMENTS When the documents are received from foreign bank, L/C opening bank affixes â€Å"Dak Received† stamp and enters the same in â€Å"Dak Received Register†.The duplicate set of documents, received by the bank, is kept with original set of documents and duplicate should be separate from the original. The bank verifies that all the documents are received as specified in the forwarding schedule of the negotiating/exporter’s bank. While scrutinizing the documents, it is also ensured that all the documents have been received as per terms of L/C. The retirement of documents can be made by the following means: †¢ Through debit to the customer’s account †¢ Through Trust Receipt Facility (FTR) offered by the bank. †¢ Through Finance against Imported Merchandise (FIM)THROUGH DEBIT TO CUSTOMER’S ACCOUNT In case customer/importer has sufficient funds to settl e the bill, Cost Memo is prepared and amount in foreign currency is converted into Pak Rupees at Selling TT & OD rate of exchange. Any foreign correspondent charges and service charges are added to it. Customer issues cheque / authority letter to debit his account for bill amount plus mark-up and other charges. After receiving the amount, title documents are endorsed by two authorized signatories and the same are delivered to customer against proper acknowledgement.In case, importer has not sufficient funds to settle the bill, he can avail finance from bank to settle the claim. Credit facilities available to the importer are explained hereunder: A. FUND BASED FACILITIES 1. FINANCE AGAINST TRUST RECEIPT (FATR) If customer desires to retire the documents through Trust Receipt facility, a request letter to this effect is obtained from him. In this case, bank releases documents of the goods to importer so that he may clear the goods from custom authorities. Payment is settled by the ban k and reimbursement is made to foreign bank.The bank has lien on receivables in this case and importer repays the bank finance after sale of the goods. Trust Receipt should not be allowed against Usance L/C unless specific approval from the authority is held. Following documents are obtained before releasing the documents on Finance Against Trust Receipt: ? Letter of Request from the customer / importer ? Bill of Exchange duly accepted by the party ? Demand Promissory Note ? Trust Receipt ? Collateral (if any) as per limit approval ? Invoice ? Agreement of Mark-up The Trust Receipt facility can only be extended upto 45/60 days or as per terms of sanction. . FINANCE AGAINST IMPORTED MERCHANDISE (FIM) This is a sale transaction at a price mutually agreed upon between the bank and the importer. The sale price consists of value of goods or documents of title to goods and margin of profit. The sale price is payable by the buyer on deferred payment basis either in part or in lump sum. Thi s facility is granted for a period of 60 days or as per sanction advice. Following documents are obtained from the party: ? Letter of Request from the customer / importer ? Demand Promissory Note ? Letter of Indemnity for clearance of consignment ?Letter of Pledge ? Agreement of Mark-up This type of facility is against pledge of imported stocks and its process / transaction flow is similar to that of Self-Liquidating Inventory Finance. TRANSACTION FLOW: Goods imported through L/C, when reach the port in importer’s country, there is a process of releasing the goods from custom authorities. For this purpose Clearing Agents on the panel of bank. The clearing agent after clearing the goods, transports the same via Goods Transport Companies to the destination of the importer. At importer’s business premises / factory, etc.Bank Muccadam is available to take over the custody of the goods as soon as these are received at the site. These goods are kept under pledge arrangement and bank takes effective control & possession of the imported goods. B. NON-FUND BASED FACILITIES 3. USANCE LETTER OF CREDIT This type of letter of credit is issued with a condition that payment will be made after some specified period of time i-e. 180 days, 365 days, etc. The bank undertakes to pay the exporter for the value of goods at some later date in order to facilitate the importer to arrange funds for settlement of the transaction.Usance letter of credit is very useful facility in which importer not only avails the opportunity of time available to pay his liabilities but also he saves borrowing costs due to difference of LIBOR and KIBOR. At present KIBOR is upto 10% whereas LIBOR is ranging from 0. 5% to 1% for the last two to three years. In case of Usance L/C, the importer will have to pay the value of goods alongwith some additional profit/surcharge levied by the exporter (which is included in the Invoice Value) for allowing repayment period to importer.Exporter will calc ulate this additional profit on transaction on the basis of LIBOR (0. 70%) instead of KIBOR (10%). In case importer avails the credit lines to settle the import bill from his local bank, he will bear the borrowing/financing cost on the basis of KIBOR which is far above than LIBOR. 4. SHIPPING GUARANTEE The shipping guarantee is issued in favor of the local shipping agents for obtaining delivery order to clear goods from port / customer authorities in the absence of original shipping documents of L/Cs. This guarantee is issued on prescribed from provided by the shipping company.This guarantee is signed by the importer and counter-signed by the bank. Following documents are required from the customer at the time of issuance of shipping guarantee: ? Letter of Request from the customer / importer ? Copy of Invoice ? Copy of Bill of Lading / transport document ? Format of the shipping guarantee to be issued ? Counter guarantee in favor of the bank duly signed by the customer ? Letter of undertaking regarding exchange rate fluctuation ? Undertaking to accept the draft in case of usance L/C ? Undertaking to accept all discrepancies in the documentsLiability under the shipping guarantee shall be reversed only after the surrender of the original bill of lading against which guarantee has been issued and the receipt of original guarantee from the shipping company. On receipt of original bill of lading, this is forwarded to the shipping company alongwith request to return the original guarantee. This facility is very short term nature normally 30 days. B. EXPORT FINANCE In order to strengthen its position in the international markets, Pakistan has to strive for improving its balance of trade by increasing its exports.As such exports have been the top priority of the government’s agenda to improve the position of foreign exchange earning of the country. Banks have a very important role to play in trade activities of the country. Banks act as agents for both the imp orters and exporters and play important role in the development of country’s trade. While handling export transactions, Credit Manager and/or Export staff of the bank must always keep into consideration the following: ? Export Policy Order of the government for the financial year ?Guidelines/instructions of Export Promotion Bureau ? State Bank of Pakistan Foreign Exchange Circulars ? Bank’s Foreign Exchange Regulations and FEX circulars ADVISING OF EXPORT LETTERS OF CREDIT Letters of credit received from foreign banks are advised to the beneficiaries in Pakistan through L/Cs advising departments of the bank. All L/Cs received are carefully scrutinized for their authenticity adhering to the terms & conditions and complying with our Foreign Exchange Regulations and International laws & publications (UCP 500). FORM â€Å"E†No person can export any goods from Pakistan unless he is duly registered as an exporter with Export Promotion Bureau under the registration â⠂¬Å"Importer & Exporter Order 1952†. Blank â€Å"E† Forms are issued to exporters, against written request, free of any charges. In order to export, the exporter will provide details on â€Å"E† form in respect of goods, quantity, invoice value of goods, terms of sale, destination and name & address of the importer. This â€Å"E† form is the main document to calculate value of goods exported and is used to control the export of any item from Pakistan.CASE STUDY: During October 2012, Government of Pakistan allowed export of 200,000 tons of sugar from Pakistan with a condition that one sugar mill can export maximum upto 10,000 tons of sugar. This maximum quantity of sugar (10,000 tons) exported by any single sugar mill to be controlled by the â€Å"E† Form submitted by the exporting sugar mill. In case of any effort of sugar mill to exceed export from 10,000 tons, SBP can very easily trace this from the record of â€Å"E† form available in its record. In the following paragraphs, we will discuss the types of financing available to exporter. . FOREIGN DOCUMENTARY BILLS PURCHASED AGAINST L/Cs This type of financing is referred to as Foreign Bills Purchased (FBP). Only those documents are purchased which are negotiable and which conform to the terms of letters of credit. The documents are forwarded to the L/C opening bank and payment is received through bank’s foreign correspondents maintaining NOSTRO account in various currencies. Following documents are submitted by the exporter for negotiation: ? Original Letter of Credit (L/C) ? Documents of title to goods (Bill of lading, Airway bill, etc. ? Bill of Exchange (B/E) ? Commercial Invoice ? Certificate of Origin ? Packing List ? Insurance Policy ? Any other document as per terms of L/C FBP is practical example of â€Å"Factoring† in which bank purchases the receivable of the client/exporter after making payment and takes the responsibility of collection of the receivable at its own end. The exporter transfers all rights of ownership of the documents to the bank and authorization to claim reimbursement from the L/C opening bank. This transaction is to be handled with extreme care, vigilance and diligence.All the financial and commercial documents are scrutinized as per terms & conditions of L/C. Documents after careful scrutiny are forwarded to the L/C opening bank and claim of reimbursement is made as well. On realization of the bill, FBP is settled /adjusted. 2. FOREIGN DOCUMENTARY BILLS FOR COLLECTION Financing against foreign bills is made on export bills which are drawn under Letter of credit and are sent for payment under documentary collection. This is a sale transaction at a price mutually agreed upon between the buyer (bank) and seller (exporter).The documents are sold to the bank and sale proceeds will be credited in the account of seller (exporter). This type of export finance is termed as â€Å"Finance against Foreign Billsâ €  (FAFB). All other procedures of FAFB are similar to FBP except that under FAFB in the event of non-payment of the bill by L/C opening bank or importer, the exporter undertakes to repurchase the same documents at bank’s marked up price. FAFB is the practical example of â€Å"Lien on Receivables†. 3. FINANCE AGAINST PACKING CREDIT (FAPC)Packing Credit is a sort of pre-shipment or pre-export finance, extended to prime & valued customers (exporters) against valid letter of credit / firm contract order. The finance is provided to the exporter for the following: ? Purchase of goods ? Freight charges ? Clearing forwarding charges ? Export duty, etc. ? Packing requirements Finance against packing credit is granted for 180 days or upto the period the shipment of goods is affected whichever is earlier. Lien is marked on the Letter of Credit / Firm Contract in order to prevent negotiation of documents.

Big Brother: A Depiction of 1984’s Dystopic Society

The term Big Brother was initially coined from George Orwell’s novel 1984. In 1984, Orwell describes the mechanisms of a dystopic society, Oceania. From the start, there is the very real warning that Big Brother is watching over everything happening in Oceania. Big Brother in Oceania is an all-seeing and omnipotent ruler. The society of Oceania lives in miserable circumstances and yet they willingly consent to this form of living believing their conditions are normal. The citizens believe it is normal for Big Brother to be watching their every move. Even the thoughts and opinions of Oceania’s citizens are constantly being monitored by Thought Police. Two-way screens are also present in all public spaces and living quarters to ensure Big Brother’s monitoring of Oceania. George Orwell’s 1984 has become renowned until this day for its clear depiction of surveillance and encroachment of individual rights. In the present-day Big Brother, a television series broadcast in numerous countries around the world, a very similar dystopia is portrayed. Contestants of the reality show enter Big Brother’s house willingly. Upon entrance, they allow themselves to be put under the scrutiny and watchful eye not only of Big Brother but also of the public outside. George Orwell’s two-way screens have been replaced with cameras that have been placed all over the house. The Thought Police have been replaced by Big Brother and the audience of the show. The limitations of the lives of the people in Oceania are also meted out on the contestants upon entrance to the house. They are made to follow certain rules and regulations provided by Big Brother. They are also required to follow all Big Brother’s orders without question. Food, money and other amenities are only available to the contestants if Big Brother supplies them with these and only if he allows them access to the supplies he has placed in the house. Big Brother in the reality show possesses many of the qualities of the Big Brother in 1984. He is both all-seeing and all-powerful. Big Brother not only monitors all of the actions of the contestants but he also dictates the actions by talking to them and ordering them around to perform specific tasks. Rules and regulations are numerous in the house and the contestants themselves are not allowed to secretly communicate with one another. Conversations or written communications that are not audibly heard by the sensors in the house are often met with punishments from Big Brother. Big Brother is indeed a portrayal of dystopia. It does not pretend to be a perfect society gone awry. From the start, the goals of Big Brother has been clear. It aims to create a living society within Big Brother’s house with members that have been stripped of their rights and forced to subject themselves to the watchful eye and unpredictable whims of Big Brother. Dystopia is very much present in the Big Brother house. Outside of its setting as a television show, the goings-on in the house are clearly negative and undesirable to anyone else. No one would want to be subjected to the living circumstances of Big Brother’s housemates. Despite the fact that Big Brother shows the very workings of a dystopic society, the show’s ratings clearly attest to its popularity. Dystopia, it seems, has become a popular notion. Big Brother, in fact, is held in much respect and adoration by the very housemates made to endure the limitations of dystopia. Perhaps this is proof of the show’s success in portraying true dystopia. In 1984, dystopia was only able to continue because of the brainwashing done on the citizens of Oceania. They wanted to be under Big Brother’s surveillance and even loved him for it. The same â€Å"love† for Big Brother is seen in the dystopic reality show.

Friday, August 30, 2019

The Role of Italian Government in Managing their Finance and Economy

There are many insights and studies already conducted with respect to the government system of each nation. Studies were also made to observe how particular governments run the economy of the respective states. Such aspects that include the financial organization of a country, infrastructure programs, foreign policy are some of the most important issues that directly affect the economy of a specific state. Moreover, the form of government is also critical in evaluating the total progress and status of a nation. There are instances that the form of government has direct relation with how well the economy is being run by the ministers and officials of the concerned nation. Italy has very interesting issues with regards to government policies that is being applied throughout the whole nation. In addition to that, Italy is a nation that has experienced various economic turnabouts that did affect the lives of its citizen. It can also be noticed how the government handled these issues and run the Italian economy.Government Regulation on Media in America One of the interesting facts and issues that are all about Italy is when the government implemented decentralization in running the economy. There are lots of advantages being decentralized in running a government rather than being centralized in the various organization structures and bureaucracy. On the other hand, it would do more harm to the economy of a nation once decentralization is not properly managed. The Italian government had decisions leading to these type of management wherein there would be more power being given to municipalities and provinces in running their respective territories. Italy once was a country that is centralized and such moves to amend the strategies in running the government will sure have numerous flaws, evidently because the new system is not yet fully absorbed by those that will be affected by such changes. The idea of decentralization came from the pressures being applied by the regions in the national government of Italy that are considered to be wealthy enough to support their own expenditures and services to the electorate. Such demand to shift the government framework to federalism is being pushed through since the government failed to deliver such service developments adequately to all of its territory. It is also undeniable the influence of these advocates to federalism since the government should have out rightly silenced all of these political pressures. The law that provided the outline for this modified system of government leads the country to various issues and disputes that need to be resolved. According to the Bassanini law (Piperno, 2000), such shift into federalism will provide a new era of how the government will run the economy of the country with a more balanced approach considering the regions, provinces and municipalities involved. Under this framework, more authoritative powers will be given to regions, provinces and municipalities with regards to the strategies on administering their respective local economy. However, according to the law, the national government can still hold authority on decisions that is of national interests. Such limitation is provided in the law to oversee the local authorities in administering their official functions. In addition to that, the law has set limits on the powers given to the local government entities such as any provision or ordinances should foster cooperation among local authorities, and promoting full accountability and responsibility in the decisions being made by the concerned local officials. This also includes the autonomy given to local units in collecting and managing taxes for their respective territories. Such introduction of local monetary collection system and management has further strengthened the power of local officials to collect taxes and dues form their citizens. The table below describes the amount of shares from different government levels. Share of different levels of government on total public sector revenue and expenditure (Piperno, 2000) Central Government Local Government Social Security Agencies Year Revenues Expenses Revenues Expenses Revenues Expenses 1980 59. 1 42. 6 6. 1 27. 1 34. 7 30. 1 1981 59. 7 42. 9 6. 8 30. 4 33. 26. 5 1990 61. 6 47. 4 7. 7 27. 6 30. 6 24. 9 1991 61. 7 47. 0 7. 9 27. 7 30. 3 25. 1 1993 61. 6 50. 1 9. 3 24. 5 29. 0 25. 3 1994 60. 2 47. 7 10. 7 25. 6 29. 0 26. 5 1995 59. 5 48. 6 12. 3 24. 6 28. 1 26. 7 1997 56. 9 40. 6 10. 7 26. 7 32. 3 32. 5 As seen on the table, the local government has increased revenues from the year 1980 up to 1997. This effect was caused by the continuous empowerment of the national government to the local municipalitie s to collect taxes for their respective regions. A significant increase of approximately 5% in the revenue collection was observed and the decrease in the revenue collection under the national government was due to the decentralization process that is being pushed by the officials of the Italian government. These numbers are expected to continue its trend as the advocacy for local government empowerment carry on to its full extent. Legislation made this financial decentralization implemented in the whole structure of the taxpayers to be shared with the national government. The local authorities also ventured to an enhanced system of putting taxes into the petrol industries to improve the tax collection scheme government as stated in their revised revenue distribution law. The local government also made substantial increase on the percentage of taxes being collected to its citizen and the industries to enable them to cover the administration’s expenditures and the budget deficit they have. As a result, many regions in the northern part of Italy made their corresponding local budgets better that before these decentralization measures were implemented. On the other hand, little effect was observed on the lower classes of municipalities and regions due to the limited resources with respect to the people and industries they have in their regions. Thus, there are still adverse effects as observed in these mentioned low income regions. With regards to the Italian government’s effort to administer the whole country, the laws in the land made it clear about all the interventions and systems in the economy. Knowing the structure of a particular government is essential because this is adds up to the bureaucratic control and distribution of services to the populace. This would also provide hints on how the economy is greatly affected by this form of government organization. The Italian government structure consists of the central government, regions, provinces and municipalities. In the present system, the national government holds a tough authority to regional governments. One particular example is that the central government still classifies laws and ordinances that the regions should implement even the regions were given powers to formulate their own legislation measures. The national government can reject regional-made laws that they think would not bring good to the entire nation. There have been conflicts between the central and regional government and when these disputes were brought to the courts, the judicial system always favored the side of the national government. Regional governments were introduced in the Italian government framework only in the 1948 Constitution. (Piperno, 2000). This government entity were provided under the constitution legislative and administrative authorities in the fields of high importance like in agriculture, health sector, tourism industry, transportation departments and other relevant aspects in their respective territories. There were five regions that were established under the same constitution. Before the fiscal decentralization law, regions do not have autonomy in their taxation system and were supported by the national government in their expenditures. For example, the financial support for the health centers in the region comes from the national treasury only, since they do not have money to finance their own health units. Provinces, on the other hand, possesses only limited duties in the former constitution or before the decentralization take effect. There are also situations when provinces did not have any substantial role in administering their corresponding municipalities particularly in those big municipalities and the metropolis. For the other municipalities, their control is mostly seen to take effect in terms of governance and support to the little municipalities and through proper management in rural areas. Municipal governments are mainly responsible for the basic services needed by the people such as potable water systems, domestic waste disposal systems, and other usual necessities of its citizens. With the aid of new legislations, these municipalities were given more powers and privileges such as the rights to vote for their municipal head and the independence in tax collection system. With these new constitutional rights, any municipality can benefit on the taxes it collect and as a result, more funds can be used to spend on the basic services for the populace. On the other hand, the primary weak spot of this approach is that it may create imbalance between rich and poor municipalities since there would be less income for those who have limited collections but with higher expenditures compared to the richer municipalities. Because of that, each municipality needs to find new strategies to strengthen their fiscal situation to maintain a well balanced budget. The table below shows the distribution of revenues in the municipality level form the specified years covered by the statistics made by the central statistics office in Italy. As shown in the statistics above, municipalities then depends their finance on the central government like in the year 1970 until they were given new tax measures including tax autonomy in the year 1972 but only took its significant mark in the year 1996. Other aspects of the Italian government’s approach in running the economy reflects on some of the key issues like freedom from foreign interventions, political system, banking systems, transportation sectors, real properties, education, culture and other essential concerns. As a member of the European Union, the Italian government is bounded to follow the laws formulated by the union. However, Italian people will only be prosecuted by the Italian court and the laws of the land, and not on the laws of the union. Italy has more than 2 electoral parties making it more divisive in terms of policies being implemented by the ruling party. Such scenario made the government very unstable because of disagreements even between the members of the ruling coalition. Such problems were added further by accusations of corruption of the leaders and the increasing foreign debt of the country. The banking system in Italy is also greatly affected by the policies being implemented by the Italian government. The banking sector can also be a gauge to measure the economy of a particular country. With regards to the Italian banking system, it is still stable in terms of being part of the European Union which uses Euro as the currency. Since Euro currency is very strong compared to the other currencies, this carries the economy of Italy. Another factor is that the government has no control or intervention over the banking system, making it more independent against any influence that government leaders may bring. With all of the bad scenarios in the political system of Italy, the country still provides great attraction for business investors because of its various provisions to make Italy a better choice in the business climate. The Italian government also ventured into privatization of government owned and controlled corporations. These move by the government provided private firms to own and manage these enterprises and pursue upgrades in the service it gives to the Italian people. The government also has more savings since they do not have to spend public funds to run these corporations. Having said all of these information on how Italian government run their economy, it can be said that the economic growth of Italy depends greatly on the people who are positioned in vital areas of government structures like mayors, governors, legislators and the primary head of the country. These persons hold sensitive positions that dictate the nation’s policies and direction toward progress and continuous advancement with the rest of the world. Corrupt leaders will only add to the problems the country is facing. Italy needs responsible people who would think first the welfare of the nation before themselves. These dedicated people will surely deliver good output for the continuous progress of their nation, Italy.

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Transnational strategy case study of The Transformation of BP Essay

Transnational strategy case study of The Transformation of BP - Essay Example orton has affirmed: The procedure of cultural modify all through BP is not just about modify; its about how we transport about that modify and harness it to the attainment of our objectives. The modify procedure is vigorously championed by the Chairman who has in use the lead in civilization modify workshops that are instructive in nature. The goal have been to appreciate the natural world of the old as healthy as the present civilization, and to entrust to a new BP culture established on necessary behaviors that has been known the ticket "OPEN" (Open Thinking, Individual Collision, Empowering, and Systems). A core group of civilization change advisors and coach are operational all through the business to assist the commerce in their civilization change agenda. According to the expert analysis BP has a considerable promise to HR policy. A team of three expert employment with the V.P. for Human Resources in conceptualizing HR plans and strategies including civilization change, dream and principles, and necessary behaviors (ARINO, A., GHEMAWAT, P. and RICART, J.E, 2004). This team mechanism intimately with the BP Corporate Policies Team to make sure that BP approach comprises suitable consideration of HR matters. BPs Individual Development Program (IDP) is a high-quality instance of Promise to HR values. BP recognized this program additional than 15 years ago to supply for the vocation expansion and preparation of a chosen group of high possible staff. The curriculum has remained advantaged; those chosen received careful older organization thought. The plan is intended to ensure business capital for its older positions. It involve persons whose vocation growth requires a additional pluralistic move toward, and looked for to give a source of workers who are clever to function in older, general organization locations. The agenda includes individual growth program planning, mentorship, job turning round, interior and external teaching knowledges, and, in a number of

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Management Teamwork Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Management Teamwork - Essay Example The importance of team work have been felt in the US and Australian organizations where researches were conducted and in which the results derived reflected the importance of team work for closing competency gaps existing in organizations. Researchers are also of the opinion that today’s work cultures are greatly influenced by the external conditions because of which employers have been focusing more on their workforce. This has brought greater emphasis on teamwork and group activities. Lastly the practical implications speak about the applicability of team works in the manufacturing, healthcare and information and technology sector. This has been the cause of work breakdown structures which can only be accomplished through group efforts. Team work has emerged as an important and crucial part of the working culture in most organizations. Many organizations have been increasingly looking at the team work skills of candidates during their recruitments. The importance of team work has also emerged because of the fact that recently there has been emergence of numerous products which are complex and which requires multiple skills for their production. A highly complex product can be produced successfully only with the application of appropriate team work. Thus it is increasingly crucial that students and candidates appearing for jobs develop and possess adequate potential for working in teams. Research also tells us that the best way to learn is through social interactions and tasks which involve working in groups and teams. Teamwork is considered to be a joint action undertaken by a group of individuals in which each one might have to undermine his or hers own interests, opinions and views in comparison to the unity and e fficiency of the group. However, it must be understood that it also recognizes individual performance and accomplishments. Team work can be most effective only when every individual’s contributions are harmonized and when each of them collectively works towards a common objective. The project seeks to bring forth whether working in teams help to achieve goals and targets more effectively and efficiently as compared to independent working. The report is supported by facts produced by prior research and analysis. This is done by presenting the views of researchers and practitioners on the subject using academic articles and journals. Lastly, the concepts developed and analyzed are applied in practical organizational settings (Avery, Walker & Murphy, 2001, p.116). Critical Literature Review Several researchers have tried to identify the various technical and non technical attributes that a graduate engineer must have in order to work efficiently in an organization. Among the tec hnical skills, in terms of the mathematical tools and techniques, researchers have identified communication and team spirit as few of the primary attributes and measure of his competency to work in an organization. Similar researches conducted in Australia and USA by Evans (1993), have identified team work as an important attribute to close the ‘competency gaps’ prevailing in work activities (Martin, Maytham, Case & Fraser, 2004, p.2). Researchers like Sageev and Romanowski

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

ABOUT CULTURE( ANTROPOLOGY) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ABOUT CULTURE( ANTROPOLOGY) - Essay Example Gender-roles were defined as expectations regarding the proper behaviour, attitudes and activities of males and females. The application of traditional gender roles leads to many differentiation between men and women. Both sexes are physically capable of leaning to cook and sew, yet most western societies determine that these tasks should be performed by women. Both men and women are capable of learning to weld metal and fly airplanes but these functions are generally assigned to males. All of us can describe the traditional gender-role patterns which have been influential in the socialization of children and the United States. Male babies get blue blankets while females get pink one. Boys are expected to play with trucks, blocks and toy soldiers; girls are given dolls and kitchen goods. Boys must be masculine – active, aggressive, tough, daring and dominant – whereas girls must be feminine – soft, emotional, sweet and submissive. Boys are socialized to think that they are invulnerable, fearless, decisive and even emotionless in some situations. These are difficult standards to meet; yet, for boys who does not â€Å"measure up† life can be trying. This is especially true for boys who show an interest in activities thought of as feminine such as cooking or for those who do not enjoy traditional masculine activities such as competitive sports. Women are portrayed to be more religious and spiritual. They are the ones who continuously ask for divine guidance when the family experiences suffering or hardships. Aside from this, women are also depicted to be very keen in keeping up with the traditions or rituals required of their religion. In any society, gender socialization and stratification requires not only individual socialization into traditional gender roles within the family, but also the promotion and support of these traditional roles by other social institutions such as religion and education. Moreover, even with all the major

Monday, August 26, 2019

Influence of New Technologies on Visual Arts Essay

Influence of New Technologies on Visual Arts - Essay Example The essay "Influence of New Technologies on Visual Arts" discovers photography and its influence on visual art of 19th century. Realism and impressionism in photography and cinematograph would never have occurred without the invention of photography. Photo-realism also would not exist without photography. The new technology of photography in the 19th century led to a Realism movement. The photographers wanted to capture a true image. They did not care about making art, but in making actual replications of real things. This helped move the technology of photography along. In an effort to capture a more real looking photo, newer cameras and film were developed. This pushed the technology forward into cinematography. The better the camera and film became made making films possible. Photographic impressionists used different techniques to make their photos seem unrealistic. Soft focus was one technique used to make a picture look different. Over exposing film was another technique. Regul ar photography inspired painters. Photography had started to come of age in the middle of the 19th century with accurate depictions of people and places. Artists such as Manet, Monet, Degas, CÃ ©zanne and Pissarro felt the pressure to develop a new style that would not compete with the "accuracy" of photography. These works would never have developed without photography. Impressionism, photography, cinematography, or painting, would not have been the same. Photorealism was also affected by the emerging technology of photography.

Sunday, August 25, 2019

American Civil War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

American Civil War - Essay Example These polarized objectives constructed the value system of the two Generals and their respective armies. More so, they shaped the history of America; and gave a blueprint of its future - the American life. On April 9, 1865, when Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, the Civil War came to the edge of end. It was a moment in history when a nation was going to be born sans slavery, sans right of succession, and abiding everything 'freedom' and 'equality' meant in essence. However, the constant collision of ideologies that had preceded this conclusion for about five years of Civil War (1861-65) is an interesting phenomenon to observe. Lee came from Virginia, and family-values, culture, traditions, chivalry, knighthood, were the elements around which his people and his life revolved and evolved. That stratification was a convenient and apt way to construct the social order - he firmly believed in. That 'land' is the primary and only source of wealth and influence - was the motivation behind all his actions. That the privileged who owned the land shoulder responsibility towards the rest of the community as well as possesses the power to monitor the actions and occupations of the community - he upheld it. Slavery and right to succession were corollaries to the beliefs of the 'land lord'. And the belief in 'landed nobility', was the guiding factor for thousands of elite men from the Southern states who plunged into war, willing to die, willing to sacrifice their everything for the cause that Lee believed in. However, the day Lee surrendered at Appomattox, it was the culmination of 'landed nobility' and the cause was lost. (Catton, pp. 17-44) On the other hand, Grant, who came from the Western front, was the son of a tanner. His background signified everything he was, and believed in - in living life the tough way, in self-reliance, in forgoing past, and in focus on future. He turned down the social order based on privileges that ran down the traditions and land-ownership. He stood for democracy, equality, and competition. If privileges meant anything to him - those were the privileges that a man earned by virtue of his competitiveness. However, along with these beliefs, ran a strong sense of nationalism. He believed in living and working in a country where nation supported the individual and individuals supported the nation - prosperity of both being complementary to each other. To Grant and his people (the Westerners), 'community' meant the whole of United States of America as against the Southerners, to whom 'community' meant only their region. This is the striking line that sets apart General Lee and General Grant and their respective people. (Catton, pp. 47-59) Lee and Grant: Two Similar Leaders Though Lee and Grant were as different as two men could ever be, yet the aspiration that ran beneath everything that they did made them strikingly similar to each other - it was the aspiration to lead their people towards a future they believed in. The two leaders were no better fighters than each other - none gave up in the face of adversity. While in spite of his army's and his personal handicaps Grant fought his way down the Mississippi valley, Lee hung on in a trench at Petersburg even when defeat stared him in his face. They both moved with resourcefulness and speed. Due to this, Lee won at Second Manassas and

Saturday, August 24, 2019

Did the French revolution and the Bolshevik revolution each improve Essay

Did the French revolution and the Bolshevik revolution each improve the lives of the Women - Essay Example The women were only defined by sex their and not by their innate capability and ambitions. Even though the Enlightenment writers seemed to advocate for women liberation, they had a limited scope; there was nothing like public rights. This essay shall critically evaluate various facets of both French Revolution and Bolshevik Revolution in an attempt to establish whether they really improved the lives of women. Years before the onset of Bolshevik Revolution, women had no voice in the Soviet Union. The women were treated as inferior sex that had no right to participate in any public event. In fact, most of them were left for peasantry jobs and house chores. The industrial jobs were preserved for men. Women would come from the farm and attend to her household at home. In France, the perception of women was not very far from that in Russia. The Enlightenment writers gave men more powers over women, just like John Locke had formulated. Rousseau, for instance, insisted on the traditional roles of women. He stated that women should limit their participation to family level. He discouraged any active participation of women in public and political events. Most women in France were, thus, peasants, laundresses and shopkeepers1. There was also no formal education for this gender. Education was only for few men who belonged to the middle and upper classes. A woman needed not to be educated, as claimed the chauvinists. Her work was to educate the girl child. The lack of formal education limited the chances of women securing job opportunities in some service industries. In France, Rousseau had argued that if a woman was to obtain any form of education, the knowledge should only be used to manage the family and not in any public offices. The arguments of Rousseau raise questions about his reasoning, him being a learned person. How can such a great scholar be in support of oppression? The French Revolution that began in 1790 was marred with

Friday, August 23, 2019

Corporate Social Responsibilty (csr) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Corporate Social Responsibilty (csr) - Essay Example Instead of these hiccups its business as usual for the companies and Chinese government because of the foreign exchange revenue. Since the citizens didn't come under the stakeholders list companies ignored their protests. CSR should always be a part of corporate strategies that shows social responsibilities are as important as profit maximisation. Practically implementing the above-mentioned tasks are very difficult. The destruction of human rights by both the parties can be complained to the UN that takes some time. The Chinese government can only be requested because it's their internal matter and can only be forced to stop by developed countries like US and Japan or UN. The only approach can be through UN and make the Chinese government realise that production should be done within best interests of their citizens and should impose restrictions that companies like Shell employ CSR activities effectively in the Niger Delta. Stevina U. Evuleocha. Managing indigenous relations Corporate social responsibility and corporate communication in a new age of activism. Retrieved Feb. 13 from: . (2005).

Discussion Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 10

Discussion Questions - Assignment Example Unearned revenue is recognized as an asset and liability. But when the service has been provided for it is then recognized as an earned revenue. They issue bond in order to help them obtain a long term finance. I would rather buy the bond at a discount because it will be cheap with a higher interest rate. The determining factor is the interest rate reflected in the market. It is a method that spreads the discount evenly over the periods during which interest is paid. When dealing with bonds payable, it involves crediting interest expense and debiting on bond payable. It also spreads the premium evenly over the months. The number of months the bind is held is divided by the number of months from the beginning of the tax period to the maturity date. The result is then multiplied by the bond premium, which is a reduced amount each year. This is because of the bond amortization form earlier years which also helps in calculation of the premium each year They are both treated as liabilities. Notes payable are recorded by the company as a liability while the other party, for example a bank, records the entry as notes receivable. Then the company makes another entry, debiting the interest expense and crediting the interest payable. On the other hand for accounts payable the company do not accrue any interest. Therefore the creditors recognize it in their books as accounts receivable and the company credits its accounts payable. Statement of cash flows enables a company displays information about the inflows (receipts) and outflows (payments) of cash of a company. It includes information about the income statement, balance sheet and the retained earnings statement. It is divided into three ways that tell us on how the company receives and uses its money. Operating section outlines money received from the daily operations of the company. On the other hand, the investment activities section outlines the price

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Jean Baudrillards concept of the orders of simulacra Essay Example for Free

Jean Baudrillards concept of the orders of simulacra Essay A commodity appears at first sight, a very trivial thing, and easily understood. Its analysis shows that it is in reality, a very queer thing, abounding in metaphysical subtleties and theological niceties (Marx). It has long been a condition of western culture to act for the accumulation of material objects. This is in part due to the capitalist nature of the world within which we live. Marx identifies in The Critique of Capitalism the emergence of two new classes of people, namely capitalists and labourers. The term capitalist describes any person who has personal ownership of capital, which consists of raw materials, instruments of labour and means of subsistence (Marx). In contrast a labourer has only the value of his labour (life activity), which he exchanges with the capitalist for a wage and as such the worker sinks to the level of commodity (Marx). Because the labourer produces for the capitalist a commodity of greater value than that of his wages and in addition those wages are paid back to the capitalist in return for subsistence, therefore social control in exerted over the working class, whilst providing the capitalist with excess commodity. The labourer consentingly becomes a slave to the system on which he depends. In addition Marx states that as the relation between capitalist and labourer (manufacturer and consumer) develops, so competition between rival capitalists becomes apparent. In effect the capitalist is forced to capture more of the market by selling goods more cheaply by the consolidation and exploitation of labour power e.g. by machinery. Such a strategy ultimately limits the demand for labour and so new industries must be developed for exploitation. These new industries are necessary because capital exists only in relation to its ability to command labour and social control and as such they reciprocally condition the existence of each other (Marx). These forced increases in demand and therefore production are evident in the contemporary world market. Important to the development of Capitalism is the use of money which abstracts labour and commodity values to a common unit for the purpose of trade. In effect the labourer discovers that the product of his activity is not the object of his activity (Marx) thus a level of abstraction occurs, which was consistent with the modernist values of the time. Karl Marx and early capitalism were mainly concerned with production which remains important but it was Situationist, Guy Debord, who gave the first insights into late capitalism and the theories that best apply to todays world economics and culture of commodities. Debord, in his book The Society of the Spectacle, bases his examination of commodities around consumption, media, information and technology. As such Debord suggests that in societies where modern conditions of production prevail, all of life presents itself as an immense accumulation of spectacles. Everything that was directly lived has moved away into a representation. By this he means to describe the world and its products as mere appearances, where the real meanings and values of commodities are translated into signs. Essentially it is a world vision that has been objectified (Debord). Debord explains the phenomenon of the spectacle as resulting from the ever increasing production of capitalism. Because competition between capitalists inevitably leads to an excess of produce, so consumer demand must be increased. Such an increase is controllable by the spectacle as the real consumer becomes a consumer of illusions, (Debord) so he can be manipulated to believe he must consume beyond the basic necessity for survival e.g. leisure products. Therefore the spectacles form and content are identically the total justification of the existing systems conditions and goals (Debord). The spectacle is mediated in society as information or propaganda, as advertisement or direct entertainment consumption, (Debord). The effects of the mediated spectacle tend to lead the consumer to an experience of alienation as the consumers want for commodities is dictated to serve and maintain capitalism. In addition the spectacle constantly reinforces itself, for example the television, which is in itself a product of the spectacle that is then used by the capitalist to implement the advertisement of other spectacles. Essentially the spectacle is the nightmare of imprisoned modern society (Debord) and explains the transition from the degradation of being into having to having into appearing (Debord). Jean Baudrillard took Marxs Critique of Capitalism and Debords The Society of the Spectacle to their conclusions with his own theory of simulation and simulacra. Similar to the idea of the spectacle, Baudrillard describes a world where the subject of everything has been replaced by a semiological value that has become more important than the original, real meaning of the object. This object he calls a simulacra. In Simulacra and Simulation Baudrillard adds extra complexity to these ideas by establishing a hierarchy of simulation, which he gives four orders. In the first order the object is a copy of an original and so can be linked to a basic reality, for example a photograph of an actual event. The second order of simulation misrepresents the original subject; in the example the photography has been digitally manipulated in Photoshop to present a non-occurrence. In the third order a reality is recreated from a simulation of an original reality, when in fact, through the process of simulacra, the original has been lost, e.g. a scene is recreated from the digitally manipulated photograph of the original event. Finally, the forth order of simulation is the combined process of the first, second and third order to such an extent that the object bears no relation to reality or the original, for example the photograph has become a virtual reality. In this instance the link between reality and the signifying systems is almost impossible to ascertain, thus creating a hyper-reality. It is the use of one simulacra as a basis for the formation of another simulacra that shows the first signs of relevance to post modernity. Consequently, in post modernism, everything is understood in relation to everything that has come before, which in design manifests itself in referencing. Post modernism is also concerned with the fact that there is no right or wrong and essentially that no real truth exists. It is of course possible for a sign to make a transition through all four of the orders of simulation, constantly abstracting meaning and widening the gap between simulation and reality. However due to the complexity of repeated abstraction and signification it becomes necessary for an amount of speculation and simplification to occur when examining transitional examples. If we take, for example, the now famous emblem of automotive company Rolls Royce, it becomes apparent the extent to which a symbolic object can be re-simulated, each time loosing a part of its original meaning. Spirit of Ecstasy, designed by sculptor Charles Sykes and mass produced in 1911, is a cast metal emblem representing the figurine of a girl with arms outstretched to hold the folds of her gown blowing in the breeze. To the present day this emblem has been displayed on the bonnets of Rolls Royce cars and is the first order of simulation in terms of it being a representation of a real person from which the sculpture has been modelled. The object also references the figure heads of classic sailing ships in an attempt to convey the automotive product as an elegant, quite and reliable vehicle, which were the mediated associations with the brand during the early development of the company. In this instance the object enters the third order of simulation as a real event (model posing for sculptor) is created from an existing symbolic object (sailing boat figure heads) in order to be recreated as a new symbolic object (Spirit of Ecstasy emblem). At this point it is important to note that this example as an investigation could examine many more stages of referencing prior to the signs use as figure heads, though this could prove too difficult and inaccurate, again reinforcing the existence of a hyper-reality. The tea pot, designed by Michael Graves in 1985 for Alessi, brings the symbol to its conclusion. The tea pot employs a plastic emblem of a bird that is attached to the spout of the kettle and creates a whistling noise when the water is boiled. This creates a pun between the whistling of a kettle and the singing of bird but more importantly, its similar visual appearance (i.e. the wings of the bird and the outstretched arms and gown of the girl) makes a reference of Rolls Royce cars. Because during the late 20th century the values associated with Rolls Royce have matured to convey the brand as one of top class and status, so it are these value that are associated with Graves tea pot, supposed to the original associations that Rolls Royce was referencing from classic sailing ships. Therefore the product has clearly entered the forth order of simulation is it holds no relation to the original meaning that the original object as sign attempted to represent. Also, by referencing past signs, it can be described as a post modern object. Like Debord, Baudrillard agreed that simulation was important to the survival of capitalism as it, through mediation, can control the level of consumption within society. Baudrillard used the term valorisation to describe the process through which symbolic objects attain value. An excellent example of valorisation is Pokemon cards, which are essentially printed illustrations on card and so their use value is very low. However, via mediation, Pokemon cards have been given a simulated symbolic value that has made them desirable and powerful as a commodity. As well as design, Baudrillards theory of simulation and simulacra has also proved influential in film making, for example in The Matrix, directed by the Wachowski brothers. The Matrix is set in the future at a time when the real world has been reduced to a desert waste land by a war between humanity and machines; after the invention of artificial intelligence. Because the machines are dependant on solar power, the humans have caused the equivalent of a nuclear winter by blocking out sunlight. This has caused the machines to retaliate by imprisoning humans in gel filled pods so that energy can be extracted from them in the form of heat. In order to control the humans in this procedure a computer simulated world called the matrix exists, that all of the imprisoned humans are connected to, living their lives in what they believe is the late 20th century, oblivious to the fact that their real bodies are in stasis in the real world. The film therefore acts as a metaphor for contemporary western cultures. Firstly the matrix is an existence of the fourth order of simulation in that it is a system of mere signs that are completely detached from reality, i.e. hyper-reality. Just as in contemporary cultures, the people who live in the matrix are unaware that they are controlled by a system through simulation. You are a slave, neo, like everyone else you were born into bondage, born into a prison that you cannot smell or taste or touch, a prison for your mind What is the matrix? Control. The matrix is a computer generated dream world built to keep us under control in order to change a human being into this (he holds up a copper battery) (Morpheus talking to Neo, The Matrix). In addition the film suggests that the prisoners of the Matrix are also dependant upon it, to the extent that they will fight to protect it. Baudrillards idea of mediasation appears in the film when it is suggested that there was a machine spawning a whole race of machines (Morpheus talking to Neo, The Matrix), thus the social control of the machines (mediation of signs) increasingly exert themselves with every new generation. Interestingly The Matrix seems to offer a solution to simulation and social control by the system, which is one of enlightenment. Once Neo understands the systems and can see the signs (computer code) of the matrix for what they really are, then he can choose to follow a different set of rules thus gaining control of his environment. As well as a theological basis on Baudrillard, The Matrix tends to convey the story via symbolic references and thus is post modern by nature. For example the follow the white rabbit scene employs a tattoo of a white rabbit, which is referenced from Alice in Wonderland in order to convey the uncertainty in discovering the truth of an alternate reality. In the same scene Neo also opens a copy Baudrillards Simulacra and Simulation in effect reinforcing links to that element of the film. In conclusion, I have identified the main themes surrounding Baudrillards orders of simulacra and simulation, shown how they relate to modern and post modern design and have given contemporary examples of their use in product design and film making. I believe that such an understanding of simulation has served well to better understanding referencing in post modernity. References Debord, G., (1977) The Society of the Spectacle, Black Red Poster, M., (1998) Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings, Polity Press Tucker, R. C., (1978) The Marx Engels Reader Second Edition, Norton Company Bibliography Hebdige, D., (1994) Hiding in the Light, Routledge http://www.geneseo.edu/~bicket/panop/baudrillard.ht http://www.artisanitorium.thehydden.com/nonfiction/film/matrix.htm http://www.rolls-roycemotorcars.com/master_frame.html

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Approaches To Teaching EFL Writing

Approaches To Teaching EFL Writing Feedback in writing has recently received a growing interest from SLA researchers due to its instrumental role in second language education. Literature suggests that as an important component of language, writing skill in a second language can greatly benefit from teachers comments particularly in the form of written feedback on learners written products. Previous research has investigated the role of teachers corrective feedback on learners written assignments (e.g., Ferris Roberts 2001, Ferris 2004; Harmer, 2001) and learners expectations on teachers error correction in their written work (e.g., Lee, 2009; Nunan 1999; Williams, 2001). These studies suggest that for improvement of learners writing skills in a second language teacher feedback is indispensable. With this in mind, this chapter discusses the importance of feedback in development of EFL learners writing skills in tandem with key issues and previous studies related to corrective feedback in the literature. It first discusses the nature of writing as one of the four main skills in language acquisition/learning (i.e., listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and common approaches undertaken to teaching writing in EFL contexts. It then discusses what feedback entails and identifies different types of error correction followed by a discussion of the role of feedback in EFL education in classroom setting. Finally, this chapter summarizes and concludes the literature review which provides insights into understanding better feedback practices in EFL classrooms. What is Writing? For any study that involves investigation of learners written work, it seems necessary to establish a working definition of writing. Numerous assumptions and definitions have been proposed to specify the concept of writing in the literature. Customarily, writing refers to a set of visible signs representing elements of a language which are arranged systematically. This system is referred to as writing system of the language. Coulmas (2003) defines writing as a set of visible or tactile signs used to represent unit of language in a systematic way, with the purpose of recording messages which can be retrieved by everyone who knows the language in question and the rules by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing system. Bryne (1979) views writing as transforming our thoughts into language; a very complex skill that requires both physical and mental activity on the part of writer. Bryne (1979) further notes that writing is the last and perhaps most difficult skill learners l earn if they ever do. While these definitions provide an understanding of the nature of writing and its qualities, what is obvious is the fact that writing is a complex and demanding process that is difficult to master particularly for those who want to produce accurate and precise pieces of writing in a second language. Among various reasons cited for complications attributed to writing, Bryne (1991) suggests three main causes that make writing an arduous task. The first, that he calls psychological problem, is caused as a result of lack of interaction and feedback between the reader and the writer. As such, to tackle this kind of problems writers rely to a great extent to their readers feedback and evaluation of their written product. Understanding this problem is of importance for language learners to improve their writing since they need to take into account their audiences likes and dislikes. The second complexity is language related; that is, lack of adequate linguistic knowledge prevents us from fully monitoring what we intend to say. This shows that linguistic competence in dominantly instrumental in developing writing skills. The third problem is cognitive, whose causes can be linked it instructional inadequacies. This emphasizes the role of writing courses in framing learners writing abilit ies as well as language teachers central roles as providers of appropriate input and feedback in such courses. As such, in light of this short review on the nature of writing task and what factors might influence a second language learners attainment of this skill, it can be inferred that teaching writing can be informed by the teachers perspectives towards such a practice in instructional settings. To further illustrate this point, the next section presents two of the most common approaches to teaching writing in a second language. Approaches To Teaching EFL Writing Writing as a Product The first approach to teaching writing, which has been known as traditional approach, is product approach, which focuses on the final product, the coherent and the error-free text (Nunan, 1999).This approach has been practiced widely since the 1950s well into 1970s. Britton (1996:30) noted that product approach emphasized correct usage, correct grammar and correct spelling in the language and that it stressed overwhelming attention toward à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦topic sentence, the various methods of developing the paragraphà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and the holy trinity of unity, coherence and other aspects of writing. Additionally, in this approach, composing is primarily viewed as a linear process that predictably starts with a topic selection to pre-writing activities, followed by actual writing and editing. The teacher only looks at the paper when it is done. Selection of topic Pre-writing activities Writing Rewriting, editing, proofreading Figure 1: Process Line (Product Approach) There are basically two main concerns with the product approach: the written product, and the grammatical accuracy. The emphasis on written product is clear in the fact that the teacher only responds to the composition once it is finished, and not before or while it is in progress. According to Jordan (1997:11), during the practice of product approach, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a model is provided with various exercises undertaken for learners to be able to internalize the prescribed patterns. Then, learners are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦required to product similar or parallel text. Nunan (1999) mentioned that the composing process in the traditional approach is viewed as linear process. It proceeds systematically from the planning or prewriting stages, to composing stage, to the revising stage (usually nothing more than copy-editing), and the final draft stage, with the writer progressing from one stage to the next without backtracking. The piece of writing handed in by the learners is the final text and is supposed to be his/her best piece of work where further revision in not needed. The feedback and correction made on the texts by the teachers would not make any difference at this stage. The focus of this approach is on the final, the coherent, error-free text, thus it is also known as the product oriented approach (Nunan 1999). As such, looking at this direct effect, the product approach does not appear to fulfill the true nature of writing. It stops short at considering writing being a skill by itself, not just a manner to attain linguistic competence. It is lacking in terms of interaction between the teacher and the text, where teachers will only see the final product, not knowing how it was developed. Lastly, as it assumes that writing is a linear process and that learners know exactly what to write about in their writing, it fails to consider how learners develop their ideas and meaning. Writing as a Process The second approach of teaching writing that has been dominant over the recent years and is opposed to traditional ways of teaching writing is process approach. The predominance of process approach has given rise to the role of feedback as an essential component of writing courses. The notion of writing as process was introduced to EFL studies by Zamel (1976), who argued that advanced EFL writers are similar to L1 writers and can benefit from instruction emphasizing the process of writing. As opposed to the view of writing as a reproduction of previously learned syntactic or discourse structures, the process-based approach emphasized the view of writing as a process of developing organization as well as meaning. In light of this view, invention strategies, multiple drafts, and formative feedback from by the teacher and/or the peers are also considered important parts of writing instruction in EFL writing classrooms. A research conducted by Zamel (1983) has revealed that composing is a non-linear, exploratory, and generative process whereby writers discover and reformulate their ideas i.e., writers often backtrack and revise from the moment they start till they finish the final draft. Writers go back and forth from one stage to another is a non-systematic way. Written texts under this approach are not treated as a final and fixed product but as part of complex process, which is recursive. There would be many drafts written by the learners on a single topic and teachers would response to every draft in order to help improve their writing and finally attaining the best written piece. The whole process begin by the learners writing their first draft and submitting later to their teacher for feedback. After writing their feedback on the learners essays, the teacher returns them to the learners . The learners write another draft by taking into consideration teachers feedback. The process then is repea ted with draft going back and forth between the teacher and the learners. If a learners draft is still not satisfactory to both the learner himself/herself and the learners draft would be repeat. That means the additional draft would be the final piece of learners writing to be submitted to the teacher. Hence, what is evident here is that in traditional approach (i.e., product approach) response is given once, whereas in the process approach, responses would be given in many drafts. The intention is to build up learners confidence and also slowly attain the best piece of writing. In this approach, the main concern of the teacher is to help learners develop their ideas, therefore, throughout the earlier writing stages; the teacher would be stressing more on content. Nunan (1999) notes that the teacher focuses less on a perfect final draft product than the development of successive drafts of a text. He further states that the focus in the first instance is on quantity rather than quality, and writers are encouraged to get their ideas onto paper without worrying too much about formal correctness in the initial stages. Because of this, the traditional way of responding to a composition would not be suitable to the process writing approach. In the same token, Nunan (2001) clearly states how very different the process approach is from the traditional product-oriented approach. He contends that whereas the product approach focuses on writing tasks in which the learner imitates, copies and transforms teacher supplied models, the process approach focuses on the steps involved in creating a piece of work. The primary goal of product writing is then an error-free coherent text while process writing allows for the fact that no text can be perfect, but that a writer will get closer to perfection by producing, reflecting on, discussing and reworking successive drafts of a text. In sum, this body of literature indicates that that most scholar nowadays advocate the process approach to teaching and learning writing, and perhaps most of them would agree on this important point that: good product depends on good process. What is Feedback? The term feedback in this review and incidentally in this study embraces the notions of correction, marking, evaluation and responding. It includes what Diab (2006) terms as correction feedback which refers to the editing type and evaluative feedback with reference to the judging type. In effect, the term feedback in this study refers to any information provided to learners about the appropriateness of their performance or the general accuracy of their answers (Diab 2006). As these definitions imply, the notion of feedback on writing was traditionally understood as error corrections teachers made to learners writings. Hence, a brief review of the corrections customarily provided on learners writing errors is in order in the next section. Error Correction When learners have completed their written assignments, teachers are expected to correct them. The corrections then serve to help the learners language development by showing where their knowledge is lacking. Truscott (1996) defined error correction as the correction of grammatical errors for the purpose of improving a learners ability to write accurately (329). This definition can be broadened to include lexical errors, including word choice, word form, capitalization, and typing conventions (Truscott, 1996). However, in terms of second language writing, this definition focuses on the mechanical and form-focused aspects of writing and showing little concern for the organizational types of corrections made by the teachers. Thus, error correction should cover feedback on both linguistic and non-linguistic skills of writing. Non-linguistic features could include instructions on paragraph development, topic string (consistent links throughout the text to relate all parts to the topic), suitable transitions between paragraphs, inclusion of preambles and signposts to increase the overall readability of the written work. Thus, these concepts indicate the extensiveness of the scope of error correction indicating its vital role in developing learner writing in a second language. Learners have a mental picture of how they think a certain grammar rule works, and the corrections should help learners to adjust that picture when they are mistaken (Krashen Terell, 1985:177). Many teachers look at learners errors as part of learning process. But how do we know the extent to which we can let errors recover on their own? What types of errors are to be given more attention to? Therefore, while providing corrections on learners assignments several essential factors should be taken into account. Hendrickson (1980) arguing that simply providing all the correct forms in learners imperfect sentences is an ordeal that can be frustrating to teachers outlines four critical learner factors that have to be considered in error correction. First, one needs to be aware of learners purpose and goals for communicating in writing. Second, the teacher must take into account the learners proficiency in the target language at any given time. The third critical factor is the teachers awareness or error types and frequencies as well as how these aspects relate to the learners goals. The final and probably the most critical factor is the learners attitudes towards the nature of correction. Feedback, whether it is given through corrections or comments, has the purpose of supporting learners learning. Race (2005:95) cites four purposes for feedback: (1) It should help learners to make sense of their work in some way, (2) It should clarify the need of learning by showing the learners what they should be trying to achieve; what the outcome of their work should look like, (3) Its should enhance learners willingness to learn, and finally yet importantly, (4) Feedback should motivate the learners to develop their skills. What becomes evident from the above stated aims is that feedback is highly instrumental in helping language learners improve their level of awareness in learning by making as less mistakes as possible. At the bottom of this reasoning is the fundamental belief that by making the learners aware of the error they make and by getting them to act on those errors in some way, then it is believed that the learners will assimilate the mistakes and eventually not make them in future. In other words, correction is closely linked to language acquisition and particularly to the idea of accurately acquiring the language. This statement itself is making sweeping statements about everything from the quality of the feedback to the ability for learners to acquire language through the feedback we offer them. However, it seems to be the heart of why we do provide feedback. Indeed one could argue that institutions and learners demand feedback and that this is the reason why we provide it, but even these two groups fundamentally believe that correction in some way leads to language acquisition and demand it for that reason. Writers such as Ashwell (2001) have pointed out that with the increased importance of the writing process there may be other reasons for including feedback and these include improving the communicative effectiveness of a given written piece. In other words we correct learners and guide learners so that the written piece they eventually produce communicates their ideas as effectively as possible. This is linked closer to feedback that looks at the content of a written piece rather than the grammatical forms within it. He also points out that an additional reason for correcting learners work is simply because formal accuracy of a written piece matters and that people generally are a lot less accepting of mistakes in written pieces. Having looked at the nature of the concept of feedback, what seems to be of importance in the classroom setting is the appropriateness of the type of feedback provided for certain purposes and for certain recipients. That is, teachers should use appropriate written feedback in order to get effective learners reaction. This goes through motivating learners using their teachers written feedback. There are many types of writing feedback and there are different types of learners reactions. Since every learner has his / her own personal attributes, the type of teachers written feedback given to learners will possibly affect learners state positively or negatively. Accordingly, it is central to look at these different types of teaches written feedback and their influence on learners attainments. Types of Written Feedback Ellis (2009) in his article titled A typology of written corrective feedback types suggests a variety of feedback types for correcting learners written work. He illustrates the types of feedback by examining the various options (both familiar and less familiar) from studies of written feedback that have examined the different options of feedback to date. Ellis (2009) outlines six main methods for providing written corrective feedback. This classification is also adopted to identify the types of feedback in this study. Ellis has categorized the various types of written corrective feedback into six major categories (see Table 2.1). Table 2.1 Categories of Written Corrective Feedback (adopted from Ellis, 2009) Written corrective feedback type Description Direct CF This occurs when the correct form is given in place of an incorrect form. It is the direct correction of error. Indirect CF 1) Indicating only 2) Indicating the specific location Indirect CF occurs when an error is indicated but the correct form is not given. Ellis identifies two types of indirect CF: 1) Indicating only is when an error is noted, such as in the margin, but the exact location is not provided. 2) Indicating the specific location is when the error is underlined or given specific reference. Metalinguistic 1) Error codes 2) Brief grammatical description Metalinguistic feedback occurs when the writer is given a linguistic clue of the error. This can take two forms: 1) The use of abbreviations or error codes 2) A brief grammatical explanation usually given at the bottom of the text or on an attached form The focus of the feedback 1) Focused 2) Unfocused Feedback can take a variety of forms in the way it is given, such as the level of focus. 1) Focused feedback occurs when a limited number of language features are concentrated on. 2) Unfocused feedback occurs when many or all language features are addressed in the feedback. Electronic Electronic feedback occurs via computer mediated methods when a hyperlink is used to indicate an error has occurred. Reformulation Reformulation occurs when a first language user rewrites or reformulates the targeted second language learners text. Due to the significance of Elliss (2009) classification of feedback types in informing the analysis of the data and providing insights into this study the most important feedback types outlined in the proposed scheme will be illustrated in the preceding sections. Direct Versus Indirect Feedback A first distinction in Elliss (2009) classification is made between direct and indirect feedback. Direct feedback refers to highlighting the errors and providing the correct forms to the learners. That is, the correct form is given in place of an incorrect form. Ellis (2009) states that direct feedback has advantage because it will explicit guidance for the learners about how to correct their errors. Similarly, Bartram and Walton, (1991: 84) mentioned that direct corrective feedback, is implemented through underlining the errors and providing the right forms in the learners written work. Examples (1) and (2) below illustrate the direct and indirect types of feedback respectively. (1) at is health Sleeping late in night are very bad for our heelth and brain. As demonstrated in example (1), direct feedback can be provided by indication of the errors accompanied with their correct forms and explanations while in case of indirect corrective feedback, learners errors can be indicated by underlining the errors without any explanation or correcting it. This is can be done by indicating where errors are located only. Example (2) shows indirect feedback. (2) Sleeping late in night are very bad for our heelth and brain. Concurring with Ellis (2009), Ferris and Roberts (2001) suggest that direct corrective feedback is better than indirect corrective feedback with learners/writers of low levels of proficiency, but conversely, Hedge (2000) argues that the dangers of its spoon-feeding effect are that learners overlook their own role in the correction process and may become passive. This is because learners can just mechanically copy the ready-made correction without figuring out the reasons. To make full use of the advantages of direct feedback and indirect feedback and avoid their disadvantages, teachers can consider combining them together. Focused Versus Unfocused Feedback A second distinction in feedback typology is made between focused and unfocused corrective feedback. Ellis (2009) states that in focused corrective feedback much attention is given on one or two types of error which assists the learner to examine several corrections on the same type of error. In unfocused corrective feedback, on the other hand, the learner or the learner is asked to engage in different type of errors, which may confuse the learner focusing on the error. Focused and unfocused correction feedback can also involve all other types of feedback such as direct, indirect, metalinguistic, focused versus unfocused and electronic corrective feedback (Ellis, ibid). Written corrective feedback studies (e.g., Bitchener, Young Cameron, 2005; Truscott, 2009; Sheen, 2007) suggest that when written corrective feedback is focused it is likely to be more effective in promoting acquisition, than unfocused corrective feedback. Sheen (2007), for example, in his study using focused corrective feedback found that such approach is effective in promoting more accurate language use. In a similar vein, Sheen at el.s (2009) studied six intact language classrooms in a pre-academic non-credit EFL program in a US college. The researchers seem to be more focused on two types of written correction (focused and unfocused) and they attempted to investigate the effects in using use adult EFL learners accurate use of English articles, use of grammatical features other than that which is the focus of the correction and the effect for written narrative tasks without error correction on the accurate use of grammatical features other than that which is the focus of the correction. The results confirmed the effectiveness of unfocused corrective feedback on learning English articles. As such, the findings from these studies recommend the teachers to select focused feedback with one or two errors types at one time rather than selecting too many types of errors. The Role Of Written Feedback In EFL Development The importance of feedback lies in quality, not frequency. There are some important aspects to consider before feedback is given. First, whether the provided feedback takes the learners development into account since demonstrating their progress through feedback can create extra motivation to work more efficiently. Motivation is an important part of feedback and lack of enough motivation can lower learners self-esteem. Giving feedback should be about motivating learners and at the same time focus on what they need to improve. This is a difficult balance to keep (Hyland Hyland, 2001:187). As such, the teacher needs to emphasize the efforts the learners made; that is highlighting the learners effort rather than the outcome or the effect it has had on the teacher. There is a difference between I see that you have worked very hard, good job! and I appreciate the hard work you have done! As the latter suggests that the work was done for the teacher, while the former focuses on the learne rs effort. The learners should feel that they work for themselves, not for the teacher (Good and Brophy, 1994:147). A second important aspect of feedback deals with whether the given feedback is based on a conscious strategy or it is provided without any consistent pattern. What this means is that teachers need to establish a consistent and conscious strategy in providing written feedback, so that learners become aware of the patterns of writing that is pointed out consistently by the teacher. However, a third aspect of feedback comes into play when tutors need to provide as various feedback as possible. Only writing Wow! does not say much about the work the learners have carried out. It is better to point out the parts that are impressive and explain why. Also, variation is necessary because if a teacher, for example, constantly writes Good job! the learners might not find it genuine and disregard it (Good Brophy, 1994:147). In the same token, as Harmer (2005) contends, there are more effective ways of correcting than underlining, crossing-out and putting question marks in learners written assignments. Keeping these points in mind could help to make feedback more useful for the learners, and also more appreciated. Variation may also be created through different ways of providing corrections on learners works. For instance, they may use selective correction which means not correcting every mistake the learners make. For selective corrections, the learners must be told before they start writing. If a teacher announces that, for example, only punctuation will be corrected, the learners might concentrate harder and make fewer mistakes in that area. Using correction symbols may be another way adding to variation and effectiveness of correcting. This reduces the amount of red ink all over the essay, which often lowers the learners motivation. Additionally, Harmer (2005:111) mentions reformulation, which means that the teacher shows how a particular sentence can be formulated in another way. That enables the learner to compare a correct version with an incorrect one. Moreover, referring to a dictionary in the feedback is yet another way to make learners learn. They have to look something up with a pu rpose in mind. In this way, they learn as they correct. For instance, if a mistake is difficult to explain, teachers can write ask me next to it so they can explain the mistake to the learner face-to-face. The fourth and final point central to providing effective feedback is to note whether it is restricted to form or it provides insights into the content as well. Gray (2004) suggests that effective feedback should concentrate on content, rather than form; check to see if the learners write fluently. Have they tried to use new words? Do they have the knowledge of going around the problems when their vocabulary is not extensive enough? There are more aspects to look at than only grammar. Hence, it would be a misconception if teachers focus only on mechanical error correction instead of seeking excellence in the learners writing development. With this in mind, the next section presents relevant issues in and appropriate methods of error correction in writing courses. In sum, this brief review indicates that in order to provide effective feedback, EFL teachers need to take into considerations different factors including learner motivation, teacher awareness of his/her feedback strategy, implementation of various types of feedback, and inclusion of both form-focused and content-related corrections in their feedback. These methods of providing feedback can be contrasted to traditional practices of error correction that focused mainly on formal or grammatical aspects of language. Williams (2001) suggests two main shortcomings of traditional methods of correcting grammatical errors. First, correction of learners errors has been found to be unclear and inconsistent when it deals with teachers written feedback. Second, using the traditional methods, learners simply copy their teachers feedback correction and use it in their subsequent drafts. Majority of the learners do not take their teachers written feedback into consideration and study those errors. Rewriting or copying the mistakes without recognizing the essence of the error will create a passive action preventing learners to learn from their mistake. Thus, giving the learners the correct feedback will motivate them with their writing task in a new piece of writing. 2.8 Research Into Types of Feedback on Learners Writing Feedback is just one aspect of EFL education; the other piece of an effective EFL learning programme would be feedback. Feedback occurs between teachers and learners in particular cultural, institutional, and inter-personal contexts, and learner responses are affected by different aspects of the context (Lee, 2009). In the context of EFL education, Lee (2009) examined learner perspectives on teacher feedback, wherein it has been established that in EFL education feedback anchored on the learners personality and personal needs are perceived to be more effective. Hence, the perception of learners with regard to feedback mechanisms often depends on the manner by which the EFL teacher conducts both assessment and feedback mechanisms. In another study, Diab (2005) examined the teacher preferences with regard to error correction and feedback. Through a thorough review of literature, Diab (ibid) was able to observe that more often than not, foreign language learners have different responses to feedbacks regarding pronunciation, error correction, and the importance given to grammar and vocabulary are often different from that of their tutors. Furthermore, Diab (2005) also indicted in his article that foreign language learners are more responsive to corrective feedback, both written and spoken than tutors. This is a good point raised in the sense that effort for a successful EFL programme should not only emanate from the willingness of the learners to learn but also in the ability of the tutors to be efficient and effective in performing their functions. Hy

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Indian air force

Indian air force CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Indian Air Force is undergoing a major shift in the field of technology and information warfare which requires the steady infusion of new technology and modernization and replacement of equipment. However, material superiority alone is not sufficient. Of greater importance is the development of doctrine, organizations, training and education, leaders and people that effectively take advantage of the technology. While fancy gadgets are nice, technology will not achieve full spectrum dominance without knowledgeable people. Professional continuing education can bridge that gap. In the bilateral exercises with the air forces of USA, UK, FRANCE, SOUTH AFRICA, SINGAPORE and RUSSIA, our men and machines put up outstanding performances making the world take notice of our exceptional professionalism. Besides exercises, the contribution of IAF detachments in peace keeping operations too has been exemplary[ii]. At the same time, IAF is undergoing unprecedented historical changes. From being a sub- continental force, it is transforming itself to become a force having continental reach and effect. We are acquiring state of the art equipment and technology and are linking ourselves with space. The modernization process includes acquisition of AWACS, additional Air to Air Refuellers, Aerostats and high technology aircraft and precision weapon system[iii]. All this is planned to be achieved by year 2022. Obviously, the technological environment surrounding military members will be very different than the one today[iv]. A full-fledged war is unlikely[v]. The expected nature of conflict could be asymmetric warfare. The military conflicts that do occur will probably be limited in terms of objective, area, force utilization and time; but the perpetrators and the responders will both use the military only as one part of a closely integrated multidimensional effort[vi]. Civil and military interaction would be inescapable. Psychological warfare (PSYOPS) and effective utilization of the media would be the indelible ingredients of the coercion process[vii]. All this would require the officers to handle a large amount of information which would be time consuming and tiring both physically and mentally. They would be required to understand the political, economic, diplomatic, technical and military environment. Most of the operations would be joint and a cyber war would add another challenge. Therefore, there is today a need to evolve an effective Professional Military Education (PME) program to develop future Aerospace leaders who are able to quickly understand the complexities of the prevailing situation and appropriately apply the highly potent capabilities of Aerospace power to achieve the desired results most cost effectively. METHODOLOGY STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This paper focuses on Professional Military Education (PME) requirements of the officer cadre in view of the transformation of the Indian Air Force by 2030. HYPOTHESIS India is likely to grow ten times bigger by the year 2050[viii]. In consonance with the emergence of an economically strong and technologically advanced India, its role in global affairs is likely to increase further. The young officers would get more exposure in working along with air forces of the other countries. They may be required to project Indias views on complex issues in international fora. This would require them to possess greater cognitive skills and better cultural awareness of international politics in general and of South Asia in particular. With the technology advancement in the inventory of the IAF there would be a requirement of exploiting technology to its maximum effect. Also, the large scale data base of information would pose difficulties to the officer in decision making. While hardware is important, it is converted into capabilities by people. Aerospace power requires highly-skilled and impeccably trained personnel. Also, in aviation, optimum performance usua lly lies close to safety margins, which brings in the concern of costs both in human and material terms. Attracting quality youth, training and retaining them is another of IAFs challenges. Inculcating qualities of leadership and innovativeness and ushering in meritocracy and productivity are important on our agenda. However, the expanding civil aviation sector exerts a huge pull on this resource and we are doing our best to blend personal aspirations with organisational compulsions. We need Government support to make this happen. Updating of skills is an associated challenge, for which international exposure has been very useful. But in the long run we might need an Air University. Again, if our manning is adequate, we would be able to send our people on sabbaticals of higher learning. As the hardware changes, new capacities and capabilities are generated that sometimes radically alter the way we do business. And it is hard to do things differently with the old processes, interfac es and organisational structures. Keeping pace and adapting to the changes, as an organisation, is another challenge. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY India will emerge as a major regional power in the early 21st century and IAF organisations capabilities will, to a significant degree influence the outcome of future wars in our region[ix]. No other profession demand more of a human being, than the military profession[x]. It is noteworthy that, despite the responsibilities attached to the man in uniform, very little has been written about the kind of education that he undergoes. While IAFs vision 2020 gives the force structure in the future battlefield scenarios it neither talks about how the IAF would be providing PME to the future leaders nor the infrastructural requirements to meet the demands. Today, we stand astride a transitional period, as the machine age moves into the information age[xi].New technologies are increasing our military capability almost daily which has resulted in exponential increase in the complexity of the modern battlefield. The challenges before us place an enormous intellectual demand upon our military professionals[xii]. In our urgency to adopt technological transformation, we are neglecting the human side of the equation. We have plans to advance our weapon technologies, but a similar commitment is not seen to advance our officers understanding of the art of warfare. The complexity of the modern battlefield requires a deeper understanding of the operational art of war for which we need to push the joint professional military education system to meet that need. It must give students the intellectual tools they need to fight the next war- not the war they are fighting today. SCOPE This study addresses the PME requirements of the officer cadre in view of the emerging technological changes brought out in the organization by year 2030 as a result of Revolution in Military Affairs. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS PME Is intended to provide the student with three critical kinds of knowledge: the ethos, culture and core values of his or her service; the technical and tactical skills appropriate to how that service wages war; and most importantly, the wisdom and judgement to be applied in a multiplicity of situations[xiii]. Military education and training is a process which intends to establish and improve the capabilities of military personnel in their respective roles. Military education can be voluntary or compulsory duty. Before any person gets authorisation to operate technical equipment or be on the battle field, they must take a medical and often a physical test. If passed, they may begin primary training[xiv]. The military concept of Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) is a theory about the future of warfare, often connected to technological and organizational recommendations for change in the United States military and others. Especially tied to modern information, communications, and space technology, RMA is often linked to current discussions under the label of Transformation and total systems integration in the US military[xv]. Continuum of Learning links Education, Training and Experience through an officers career to produce the right person at the right place and time to achieve AF missions[xvi]. Knowledge management is the end-to-end continuous process that describes the systematic creation, acquisition, integration, distribution, application and archiving of knowledge to drive behaviour and actions which support organisational objectives and mission accomplishment. METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION Despite being a very contemporary topic, not many books/ publications have been written on it. The data for this paper has been collected mainly from the books, periodicals, college lectures and various sites on the internet. Bibliography is placed at the end of the text. ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- Chapter 1- Introduction and Methodology. Chapter 2- Transformation of the IAF by 2030. Chapter 3- Recent Training Developments in IAF. Chapter 4- PME and Technological Challenges. Chapter 5- Concepts on Future of Air Force Education and Training. Chapter 6 Desired Traits in Future Leaders. Chapter 7- Officers Professional Military Education Policy: US Armed Forces. Chapter 8- Limitations in PME. Chapter 9- Recommendations: Educational Requirements Chapter 10- Conclusion. CHAPTER III TRANSFORMATION OF THE IAF BY 2030 Enhancing Combat Power Two eventful developments have made it easier to predict the shape of the IAF in 2030. First was the emergence of India as the new economic powerhouse; second, was the IAFs growing aspirations to transform itself from a mere sub-continental, strategic aerospace power in conformity with other leading air forces in the world[xvii]. The IAF would be required to acquire comprehensive capabilities cauterised by flexibility, quick response, mobility and transportability of all forms of national power, as well as, long reach and precision targeting firepower with minimal collateral damage. The IAF is at present struggling with a depleted strength of around 30 squadrons[xviii]. Therefore, IAF will have to embark on a modernisation plan coupled with a comprehensive inventory augmentation programme to build up its combat force to the desired levels. The aim would be to augment the squadron strength to 45 squadrons by 2030[xix]. This would amount to approximately 900 combat aircraft[xx]. In addition to this the IAF would induct large no of Heavy Lift and Medium Transport Aircraft. The helicopter fleet would induct sophisticated platforms like Apache AH-64 and the LCH. The force multipliers would include the IL-78, FRA, AWACS, AEWC aircraft. UAVs would play an important role in not only war but also in Operations Other Than War. The IACCS, AFNET and the Defence communication Network would provide large information to the user and require 24 hour monitoring. To cater for this large inventory the requirement would be of focussed logistics and the maintenance setup which again would be dominated by the technology. By 2030 new areas of expertise and specialisation may be necessary. In 2030, we may find it necessary to deploy space warriors, or hackers, instead of (or in addition to) a more traditional military force. Future Warfare The first important consideration is that all military action against the two major adversaries, China and Pakistan, would be taken under the shadow of proclaimed nuclear capabilities. Secondly, the operating environment and manoeuvre space for the armed forces will be increasingly restricted due to various factors, such as need to minimise collateral damage, legal and international issues and media glare. Last, but not the least, would be the increased relevance of technological dominance in the conduct of operations, irrespective of the level of conflict[xxi]. A typical air campaign will be executed at a very high intensity and with reduced Decision Cycles'[xxii]. All assets would be networked to such an extent, that they will provide total transparency of the battle-space, so as to dominate the operational environment, through control over the domains of Information, Space and Cyberspace. ISR assets on station would provide real time intelligence and targeting assessment that would permit switching of responses instantaneously, as the battle progresses. Such flexibility and responsiveness would be possible only by the networking of all elements on a secure and robust architecture, which will enable distribution and access to all kinds of data. Possession of these capabilities and flexibility in their employment will hold the key to success in both conventional and sub-conventional scenarios. CHAPTER IV RECENT TRAINING DEVELOPMENTS IN IAF In the year 2005, a review of training courses was carried out by Air HQ and HQ TC to overcome some of the existing limitations[xxiii]. The aim was to reduce the duration of absence of officers from the operational units, streamline the course syllabi and provide Just in Time training. It was felt that the basic learning should be carried out more by Distance Education with a short contact programme. Distance Education leverages existing technology to provide learning to wider audience at different locations and that too at low cost[xxiv]. In addition, all the courses were graded and the Grade Point Average is now linked with promotions. In the new system, instead of JCC, there is Basic Air Staff Course at AFAC for all officers with minimum 03 years service, Basic Professional Knowledge Course for all aircrew with minimum 4.5 years service, Intermediate Air Staff Course at AFAC for all officers with minimum 07 years service, QFI/FCL/TP courses between 08-11 yrs, Advance Professional Knowledge Course with minimum 9.5 years service, Advance Air Staff Course between 10-12 years and HACC between 19-21 years of service. The main benefits of the new training policy is that in a methodical manner, wider number of officers benefit from these courses, as some of them are mandatory for all officers to attend, current issues get speedier dissemination to a wider audience and knowledge bank gets continuously updated as information eventually would be available at Air Force WAN. There would be two sets of mandatory courses each year that itself will constitute two parts; the first part would be Distance Learning (DL) and the second part Contact Program (CP) at an appropriate location. The Air Force Academy shoulders the prime responsibility of initiating the leadership development program in the IAF[xxv]. The essential focus at AFA is on teaching basic flying skills, enhancing knowledge on flying related subject and air and space issues and developing physical and mental toughness. When the young officers reach the operational units, the responsibility for continuing with their leadership development process lies with the Commanding Officer/Station Commander. For the pilots, initially the officer focuses on learning how to fly an advanced ac and how to use it as weapon system. Subsequently, he is taught how to lead in air. Flying itself relates to an unknown environment and to an extent develops physical courage. Whilst they are learning advanced flying skills, they are also exposed to secondary duties that deal with administrative aspects like Adjutant, UFSIO or Oi/c messes, though in an adhoc fashion. During the formative years, there is very little structured exposure for the pilots towards administering and leading men on ground. This deficiency stand out when they become Commanding Officers and have to perform administrative functions too[xxvi]. After few years of service, the young officer is eligible to undergo BASCO/BPKC[xxvii]. The AFAC teaches him basis aspects related to administration, AF Law, Psychology, Leadership and Airpower. CAW teaches aspects related to airpower employment to flying branch officers. At TACDE, the fighter and helicopter aircrew learn qualities of leadership in air, while undertaking FCL/FSL/HCL/MFC/SAGW courses. Subsequently, the officer undergoes ISCO/APKC. However, the training of young leaders till now deals only at the tactical level. The next step in the officers leadership development program is to undertake the Air Staff Course at DSSC, Wellington. The course exposes officers to perform effectively in Command and Staff appointments tenable by Sqn Ldrs to Group Captain ranks. After the officer has finished command of a unit, he could be detailed for Higher Air Command (HACC)/Higher Command/ Naval Higher Command Courses at College of Air Warfare / Army War College / College of Naval Warfare or for Higher defence Management Course (HDMC) at CDM. The aim of HACC is to train selected officers of the three services to occupy senior Command and Staff appointments, who will be involved in planning and conduct of operations and for command of stations. However, only selected officers undergo such courses. NDC is the last structured course on national security and strategic studies in the leadership development process[xxviii]. This is pitched at the grand strategic and strategic level to provide insight into issues related to national security and higher leadership requirements. CHAPTER V PME AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGES The new military soldiers, who use their brains, can deal with a diversity of people and cultures, who can tolerate ambiguity, take initiative, and ask questions, even to the point of questioning authority. The willingness to ask and think may be more prevalent in the US armed forces than in many businesses. As in the civilian economy, fewer people with intelligent technology can accomplish more than a lot of people with the brute-force tools of the past[xxix]. Alvin Toffler The challenge before us is to absorb new technologies and translate them into operational effectiveness. Managing this period of transition is the task before all of us and we are confident that we shall find new and innovative ways to fully exploit our new inductions[xxx] . Air Chief Marshal PV Naik Technology is one of the factors necessary to meet the capability requirements of PME 2030. Trends in technology today, in general indicate the technological fields of the future will be tremendously fertile and highly affordable[xxxi] . This would help people to connect to each other easily, access data and to train computer networks to automatically gather and analyze data based on user demands. Virtual reality is being used now as one solution to the information overload[xxxii]. Automated assistants with even greater capabilities will ensure current and relevant information tailored to his or her needs and background. The military services are actively developing artificial intelligence and expert systems to aid humans digest information and act on it[xxxiii]. For example, the systems are been developed for analysing radar signatures, labelling automatically generated situations and air-to-air encounters, planning for contingencies, diagonising maintenance problems on aircraft, playing the role of intelligent opponent in war games, developing attack strategies for complex targets, helping to detect the counter C3 countermeasures, providing advice on allocation decisions and even predicting likely locations and times of outbreaks of violence. The pace of technological improvements will continue to accelerate. Exponential change will be the norm. Increases in computing power, graphics and bandwidth will lead to advancements in visualisation, modelling, simulation and animation[xxxiv]. Therefore, our PME system must respond to the exploding technological and informational environment, evolving personnel characteristics and the fiscal constraints. Obviously, the technological environment surrounding military members will be very different than the one today[xxxv]. It will include commonplace use of artificial intelligence, intense miniaturisation, expert systems, virtual and artificial realities and automated computer assistants. Therefore PME 2030 must harness this technology to educate the entire military force. Since, the rate of change in technology and the rate of growth in available information increase every day, all the technological advances mean that by 2030, information needs will grow exponentially and the amount of new information will be astronomical. Without careful planning and information- handling skills, the decision makers of the future will be susceptible to analysis paralysis[xxxvi]. Handling Space would be another challenge in any future vision of the IAF. In his book The Next Hundred Years, George Friedman predicts the possibility of the next Great War being fought almost entirely in space. By about 2050, he suggests the US would operate huge space stations- which he calls Battlestars after the popular TV series-that would serve not only as weapon platforms but as command and control centres to manage conflicts on the Earths surface[xxxvii]. One system of satellites alone generates more than 10 quadrillion bytes of information about the Earth, equal to about 10 billion books[xxxviii] . This will pose difficulties to military analysts in determining and locating the critical information which can mean life-or-death and success-or-failure in the combat environments of 2030. The military education system must help analysts and operational units by determining which methods and technologies will be needed. CHAPTER VI CONCEPTS ON FUTURE OF AIR FORCE EDUCATION AND TRAINING We have all heard the phrase flexibility is the key to airpower. I would like to add that Knowledge- Enabled Airmen are the key to flexibility[xxxix]. Michael W. Wyne The concepts that are essential to meet the needs of the future Air Force and defines one approach to the future of education and training are[xl]:- Knowledge Management. Continuous Learning. Precision Learning. The requirement is to develop and field systems that are not just network-centric, but knowledge-centric. For the air force of the 21st century to be agile, adaptive and learning organisation it must embrace change, accept risk, cope with reverses and learn to reinvent itself constantly[xli]. To achieve this we need to transform our existing education and training system to build a future learning organisation employing new learning concepts and leveraging new technology. The future Air Force must successfully operate in and dominate not only the domains of air, space and cyberspace, but the cognitive domain as well[xlii]. The cognitive domain exists in the human mind and involves information processing. Therefore, IAF must focus its transformation efforts to achieve superiority in the cognitive domain and to achieve cognitive and learning superiority; the air force must develop a new learning culture. Future Learning Knowledge Management Knowledge management is the end-to-end continuous process that describes the systematic creation, acquisition, integration, distribution, application and archiving of knowledge to drive behaviour and actions which support organisational objectives and mission accomplishment[xliii]. Knowledge management captures both existing and newly created information and knowledge, stores it in an enterprise knowledge base through which information can be distributed, shared and accessed by the officers to support both learning when and where needed and the application of knowledge and skills to perform assigned tasks and solve problems. Officers need to be more creative and innovative to solve tomorrows problems. Therefore, access to a dynamic knowledge base will provide closer integration between training and operations. In the IAF there is a requirement of a major cultural change to become a learning organisation. Air force knowledge management system will be revolutionary, leveraging existing efforts and rapid technological advancements. The requirement is not only to train the way we fight but to fight the way we train using the same knowledge databases, networks and technologies. With the development of the AFNET, The IAF has a unique opportunity to leverage new technologies to advance the knowledge management concept. This can serve as a potential platform for the delivery of services supporting future learning systems and the distribution and application of knowledge. As the culture of learning is instituted in the organisation, it would be easier to master the cognitive domain. Continuous Learning In the future wars highly skilled and educated Air warriors would be required[xliv]. The key to personal and organisational growth in the Air Force, and development of officers dealing with complex missions operating in air, space and cyberspace is continuous learning. Continuous learning focuses on the development of the officer from before commissioning through retirement and beyond. This concept is consistent with the continuum of learning. It allows the officer to individually recognise the right skills, knowledge and the aptitude they need to accomplish assigned tasks and missions. This requires a systematic and holistic approach so as to provide the right education, training and experiences at the right time. The basic principles embodied in continuous learning include[xlv] :- (a) Recruit the best and brightest candidates who can learn and operate in the future Air Force. (b) Offer effects- based learning opportunities based on learning objectives and outcomes. (c) Provide career long progression through deliberate education, training and experimental opportunities to enable officers reach their full potential. (d) Provide learning opportunities on demand. (e) Provide a push and pull system to make learning opportunities available when and where appropriate to enable a sustainable military advantage. (f) Leverage operational competence and tactical expertise through timely education, training and experience. (g) Development supported by leaders who internalise and visibly espouse the vision, values, climate, motivation and behaviours that constitute the new learning environment. Training, education and experimental learning power continuous learning[xlvi]. Therefore, it would be important to use these means to develop the appropriate combination of specialists and generalists to meet the mission requirements. Future officers would be required to perform a wide variety of functions, enabled by new technologies, new learning paradigms and robust knowledge management systems. Continuous education offer a good opportunity to reduce skill decay, keep skills current and remain informed of the latest technological changes and developments in the field. Two factors which epitomise the need for continuous learning are critical thinking and problem solving skills[xlvii]. With the process of continuous learning the critical thinking will no longer be restricted to the senior Air Force leaders. One of the most challenging skills to develop is leadership at the tactical, operational, and strategic levels. Successful application of human judgment to orchestrate mission success requires much more than force of personality. In the future, it will require a greater ability to multi-task, prioritize subordinate actions, and assimilate vast amounts of information while fostering collaboration. Some leadership scenarios must be executed in an atmosphere of maximum situational awareness, while others may impose an information-limited setting. Application of modern leadership will necessitate new methods in the way we train and educate current and future leaders. All education and training programs, including advanced operational training and Professional Military Education (PME), will adapt to the needs, skills and training proclivities of Generation Y- the Millenials. According to Mark Prensky, Millenials are considered Digital Natives because they: are all native speakers of the digital language of computers, video games and the Internet. Those of us who were not born into the digital world but have, at some later point in our lives, become fascinated by and adopted many or most aspects of the new technology are Digital Immigrants. Digital Natives are used to receiving information really fast. They like to parallel process and multi-task. They prefer their graphics before their text rather than the opposite. They prefer random access (like hypertext). They function best when networked. They thrive on instant gratification and frequent rewards. They prefer games to serious work. To address these needs, courseware that is interactive and multi-media enhanced will be available through a next generation distributed learning system that will offer live, virtual, and constructive scenarios for development of all officers. These capabilities will enhance the decision-making, communication, and negotiation skills that are critical for senior leadership. Distance learning will evolve from basic enrolment in computer and web-based courses to virtual learning environments that support online collaboration and classes taught by both live and virtual instructors. Precision Learning Precision learning delivers the appropriate education, training, or experience at the right time and place, in the right format, to generate the right effect. Precision learning relies on customised learning, mass collaboration, push and pull learning systems, distributed learning opportunities, increased use of simulated and virtual technology, and enhanced use of visualization technologies. It focuses learning on the learner[xlviii]. This would provide the officer access to the knowledge base through mobile or internet and organised by the advanced knowledge management systems. Precision learning has the potential to enrich the learning experience and increase effectiveness while reducing the cost of instruction and increasing efficiency. The delivery of training and education must be flexible and permit schedule, delivery and media formats tailored to individual needs. It will deliver customised course material based on each students ability to learn. CHAPTER VII DESIRED TRAITS IN FUTURE LEADERS Professional attainment, based upon prolonged study, and collective study at colleges, rank by rank and age by age-those are the title reeds of the commanders of future armies, and the secret of future victories[xlix]. -Winston Churchill, 1946 Having seen the variables that are likely to affect future leadership, let us examine the traits that need to be present in future leaders to overcome these uncertainties. Although these traits were required earlier too in